SEMINAR

Year : 2007 | Volume : 73 | Issue : 5 | Page : 296-306

Parthenium: A wide angle view

Lakshmi Chembolli, Srinivas CR
Department of Dermatology, PSG Hospitals, Peelamedu, Coimbatore, India

How to cite this article:
Lakshmi C, Srinivas CR. Parthenium: A wide angle view. Indian J
Dermatol Venereol Leprol 2007;73:296-306

How to cite this URL:
Lakshmi C, Srinivas CR. Parthenium: A wide angle view. Indian J
Dermatol Venereol Leprol [serial online] 2007 [cited 2007 Oct
6];73:296-306. Available from:
http://www.ijdvl.com/text.asp?2007/73/5/296/35732



Introduction Top


Parthenium hysterophorus L. (congress grass, congress weed, carrot
weed, wild feverfew, the "Scourge of India") is an exotic weed that
was accidentally introduced in India in 1956 through imported food
grains. [1] It has become a common weed causing dermatitis of epidemic
proportions. [2] The epithet "congress weed" refers to the US congress
(who allocated the shipment for Pune, India). [3] In Pune, it found an
ecological niche without natural enemies and spread rapidly along the
canal banks, roads and railway tracks to become a major field weed.
[4] Both rural and urban areas have been invaded by this weed. It is
the leading cause of plant induced air-borne contact dermatitis in
India [5] and has achieved major weed status in India and Australia
within the past few decades. [6] The weed can affect human health,
animal husbandry, crop production and biodiversity. [6]


Distribution Top


Parthenium hysterophorus is a native of the West Indies and North East
Mexico. [7] During the last hundred years, it has spread worldwide
[Table - 1]. [8],[9],[10] It is thought to have originated as a result
of natural hybridization between Parthenium confertum and P.
bipinnatifidum . [11]


Botanical Aspects of P. Hysterophorus Top


It belongs to the family Asteraceae/Compositae (Daisy family), which
is one of the largest and most important families in the plant
kingdom. The family includes troublesome weeds, ornamental annuals,
herbaceous perennials, medicinal and food plants [Table - 2].
[12],[13] Fifteen species of Parthenium L. occur in America and the
West Indies. One species, Parthenium hysterophorus L. was introduced
to the Indian subcontinent. All contain allergenic sesquiterpene
lactones (SQLs).

In South America, P. hysterophorus does not contain parthenin, but
instead has hymenin, which is a diastereomer. However, in India, the
plant contains large amounts of parthenin and ambrosin. [14] No cross
reaction between parthenin and hymenin exists in humans and guinea
pigs. [14],[15]

The plants of Compositae family have many tiny flowers (florets)
clustered to form a flower head (capitulum). This flower head is
surrounded by bracts (modified leaves) that form an involucre beneath
or around a flower cluster [Figure - 1]. [12]

P. hysterophorus has two life cycles, [8]

1. Juvenile or rosette stage
2. Mature or adult stage



Juvenile stage

It has a rosette with large, dark green, simple, radicle, pinnetisect
small leaves and flowering is absent. The large lower leaves are
spread on the ground like a carpet, without allowing any vegetation
underneath it.

Adult stage

It is procumbent (trailing along the ground but not rooting),
profusely branched, leafy herb resembling a bush or shrub because of
its height (1-2.5m). The stem becomes tough and woody as the plant
matures into a hardy bush. Enormous number of pollen grains (624
millions per plant) are produced by anemophilous (by wind)
pollination. It is an extremely prolific seed producer with upto
25,000 seeds (achenes) per plant. The plant is thermo- and
photo-insensitive; hence, it grows round the year except in severe
winters; in other words, it survives environmental extremes. It is a
rapid colonizer and competes out other vegetation in its vicinity
within two growing seasons. It grows in almost all types of soil
except near the seashore as the saline soil is not conducive to
parthenium flowering.

Allergenicity

The allergens in Asteraceae are SQLs and thus the patients with
contact dermatitis to Compositae can react to many other
non-Compositae SQL containing plants [Table - 2]. [12],[13] The SQLs
are found in the leaves, stems, flowers, and some pollens. The highest
concentrations are found in trichomes which are present on stems, the
underside of leaves and in the flowering heads. [12]

Cross-reactivity between SQLs does not follow any rules. No single SQL
nor the commonly used " SQL mix" of three common SQLs (alantolactone,
dehydrocostus lactone and costunolide) serves as a reliable screen for
SQL allergy. [16] Therefore, the samples of the suspect plant should
always be used while patch testing a patient. [11] Over 200 skeletal
types and 1350 individual types of SQLs have been described, and each
of these may have multiple functional groups attached to them. [12]

SQLs are characterized by the presence of a γ-butyrolactone ring
bearing an exocylic γ-methylene group [Figure - 2].

Human health

Around three decades ago, serious human health risks from P.
hysterophorus were reported from Pune. [1] Several thousands of cases
of allergic contact dermatitis with some fatalities have been
reported. [1] An outbreak of epidemic proportion followed a dam burst.
[2] "After 1-10 years of exposure to the weed, 10-20% of the
population will develop severe allergenic reactions. There may be hay
fever, asthma or dermatitis and can be caused by dust and debris from
the plant as well as pollen." [17] The severity of dermatitis in India
is greater in comparison to America because the plant grows more
vigorously in India and contains large amounts of the sesquiterpene
lactone, parthenin, which is absent in the plants in South America.
[18],[19]

It clinically involves the adult males in both USA and India.
[12],[20],[21] Studies have estimated a ratio of 20:1 between men and
women. [3],[12] This cannot be explained in terms of degree of
exposure since Indian women and children also work in fields. Possibly
women and children are less frequently sensitized. [12],[21] However,
the studies on plant dermatitis from India have shown a male-to-female
ratio of 1:1 and 5:5:1. [22],[23] In a study from Minnesota, the large
male preponderance appeared to change with the male-to-female ratio of
1.4:1. [24] Initially, the exposed sites of the face, neck and
flexures are affected with erythema, blistering and intense pruritus
resulting later in skin thickening, hyperpigmentation and development
of a leonine facies. [1] Unexposed sites may get involved late in the
course of the disease. A seasonal variation is initially observed with
the dermatitis flaring in the summers corresponding to the growing
season and disappearing in winters. [25] After several years,
persistent pruritic lichenified dermatitis develops without seasonal
variation. Winter exacerbation is seen in the months of September,
October and November and may be due to the increased growth of
parthenium following the North-East monsoon showers. [26]

Various patterns of dermatitis have been described;
[1],[12],[25],[27],[28],[29],[30],[31],[32] a typically airborne
contact dermatitis (ABCD) involving the eyelids and nasolabial folds,
photodermatitis (essentially a pseudo-photodermatitis) involving the
eyelids, nasolabial folds, areas under the chin and behind the ears,
atopic dermatitis, seborrheic dermatitis, exfoliative dermatitis and
photosensitive lichenoid dermatitis. Hand dermatitis is observed in
gardeners after contact with the weed. [12] Vitiliginous skin appears
to be spared perhaps due to the vacuolization of Langerhans cells in
these areas. [33]

Air borne contact dermatitis is not always due to Parthenium
hysterophorus . Xanthium strumarium , another weed belonging to
Compositae, is reported to be a causative agent in North India with
patch test positive to xanthium but negative to parthenium. [34] Other
members of the Compositae family causing ABCD in North India include
Chrysanthemum morifolium (chrysanthemums) Dahlia pinnata (dahlia) and
Tagetes indica (marigold). [35] Since the allergens of Compositae are
sesquiterpene lactones (SQLs), cross reactions may occur. [34],[35] P
. hysterophorus and X. strumarium have shown a high rate of
cross-sensitivity in Indian patients, [36] whereas the prevalence of
cross reaction with chrysanthemum is generally low. [37],[38] It is
also important to distinguish between true cross sensitization and
polysensitivity. [39] If a patient develops independent allergies to
more than one agent that do not share any chemical groups (antigenic
determinants), then such a situation is called polysensitivity and not
cross-sensitivity.

The degree of contact hypersensitivity to an agent can be determined
by the titer of contact hypersensitivity (TCH) [40] Increased
dilutions of the causative antigen in addition to the standard
concentration recommended for the antigen are applied on the
sensitized patient. The highest dilution (or the lowest concentration
of the antigen that still produced a distinct positive patch test
reaction was labeled as the titer of contact hypersensitivity (TCH) in
that patient. [41] The TCH was found to be a reliable indicator of the
degree of contact hypersensitivity, and the results have been shown to
be reproducible. [42] However, other reports have found that the TCH
does not correlate with the clinical severity of contact dermatitis or
response to treatment. [43]

The severity of dermatitis in a parthenium sensitive patient depends
on the degree of contact hypersensitivity in the patient at that time
and the quantity of antigen in contact with the patient. [44]
Inhalation of pollens can cause allergic rhinitis that can develop
into bronchitis or asthma if the pollens enter the respiratory tract
during breathing. [45]

Parthenin has enhanced toxicity due to the presence of a cyclopentene
group that can cause chromosomal damage in animal cells, uncouple
phosphorylation and inhibit the key cellular enzymes. [6] Aeropollen
sampling in Bangalore (Southern India) over a 6-year period revealed
that 40-60% of the total pollen count was from P. hysterophorus . [6]
Allergenicity to P. hysterophorus pollen extracts was recorded in 34%
allergic rhinitis and 12% bronchial asthma patients from Bangalore. [46]

Parthenium pollen is now a major cause of allergic rhinitis in
Bangalore with 7% of the population affected and 40% sensitive to the
pollen. [47] Such a high incidence of allergic rhinitis to a specific
pollen has not been reported from any other place in the world. [6]
Subsequent studies in Northern India (Punjab) showed that a
significant proportion of bronchial asthma patients is sensitized to
P. hysterophorus . [48] In New Delhi, out of 63 patients with airborne
contact dermatitis, 62 showed a positive reaction to the parthenium
weed. [49]

Studies on cross-reactivity between ragweed ( Ambrosia ) and
parthenium pollen suggest that individuals sensitized to parthenium
may develop type-I hypersensitivity reactions to ragweed and vice
versa when they travel to regions infested with the weed, to which
they have not been previously exposed. [50] Parthenium weed may have a
more sinister effect on human health since it has been hypothesized
that parthenium-contaminated animal feed leads to tainted milk and
that the hepatotoxic parthenin reacts synergistically with copper in
causing Indian childhood cirrhosis (ICC). [51]


Photosensitivity and Parthenium (Compositae ) Dermatitis Top


The relationship between photosensitivity and parthenium dermatitis
has been a mystery. SQLs are not photo sensitizers, they have neither
phototoxic nor photoallergic properties. [12],[20],[52] There is only
one well-documented case of photocontact dermatitis. [53] The
reduction in the minimal erythema dose (MED) to UVB and minimal
phototoxic dose to UVA has been reported. [54],[55] The photo
aggravation of parthenium dermatitis has been reported, [56] but
improvement is observed in patients after avoiding further exposure to
plant even if they move to a sunny area. [1]


Pathogenesis of Parthenium Dermatitis Top


Delayed hypersensitivity alone does not explain the varying clinical
patterns and photoaggravation. The combined type IV and type I
hypersensitivity to parthenium has been recently postulated. [57] Type
I hypersensitivity mediated by IgE, particularly in the sensitized
atopic individual with parthenium dermatitis could be initiating and
perpetuating the dermatitis. [57] P. hysterophorus may be
precipitating or exacerbating the atopic dermatitis. Photoaggravation,
heat intolerance and flexural involvement are the features of atopic
dermatitis. [58] Various clinical patterns of parthenium dermatitis
such as flexural eczema, prurigo nodularis, chronic actinic dermatitis
can be observed in patients with an atopic diathesis. [59],[60]
Although a combination of type III and type IV hypersensitivity had
also been postulated, [61] this has been questioned since IgG
antibodies that mediate type III hypersensitivity have not been
detected. [62]

Animal husbandry

The impact of Parthenium weed on livestock production is diverse (both
direct and indirect) affecting grazing land, animal health, milk and
meat quality, and marketing of pasture seeds and grain. This weed can
be a serious problem in grasslands in India and can reduce the
pasture-carrying capacity by 90%. [63] The most comprehensive analysis
of its economic impact on livestock production has been made from
Australia. [64],[65]

Serious health hazards to livestock in parthenium-invaded areas have
been reported. [66] While cattle and buffalo sparingly feed on
parthenium weed, goats readily graze it. In artificial feeding tests,
buffalo bull calves accepted the weed alone or in mixtures with green
fodder with severe consequences. The majority (11 out of 16) developed
severe dermatitis and toxic symptoms and died within 8-30 days.
Alopecia, loss of skin pigmentation, dermatitis, and diarrhea have
been reported. [66] Degenerative changes in both the liver and kidneys
and inhibition of liver dehydrogenases have been reported in buffalo
[67] and sheep. [68] The milk and meat of cattle, buffalo and sheep
becomes tainted by parthenium. [45],[69] The practical impact of the
presence of antigens in meat and milk must be studied.

Crop production

The impact of parthenium on crop production system may be direct and
indirect. [6] Allelopathogenicity (direct toxicity) due to release of
phytotoxic substances such as caffeic, vannilic, chlorogenic, p
-hydroxybenzoic acids, parthenin, ambrosin and coronopilin inhibit
several crop plants and multi-purpose arable crops, thus decreasing
the crop yields. [70] Indirect effects include poor fruiting of
leguminous crops In Southern India; in parthenium-infested fields,
parthenium pollen was found on Crotalaria and Desmodium . [71]
Parthenium pollen was found to reduce the chlorophyll content probably
by interference with porphyrin biosynthesis. [71]

Another indirect effect is its potential role as an alternate host for
crop pests functioning as an inter season reservoir or inoculum
source, as for example, in the case of scarab beetle, which is a pest
of sunflower ( Pseudoheteronyx sp.) in central Queensland. [72] The
agromyzid, Liriomyza trifolii - a pest of bell pepper ( Capsicum
annuum , Solanaceae) - prefers to feed and oviposit on P .
hysterophorus that grows along the roadsides in the pepper growing
regions of Texas. [73] In addition, P. hysterophorus may act as a
secondary host for plant diseases. The bacterial pathogen, Xanthomonas
compestris pv. phaseoli , could be transmitted from the weed to
Phaseolus vulgaris (Leguminosae) with reciprocal infection, at the
preflowering and pod-formation stages. [74] The bacterial wilt
pathogen has been recorded on P. hysterophorus in India. [75] A number
of crop viruses have been detected from Tamil Nadu and Karnataka in
India and from Cuba. [76],[77],[78]

Biodiversity

The invasive capacity and alleolopathic properties have rendered P.
hysterophorus with the potential to disrupt the natural ecosystems. It
has been reported to be causing a total habitat change in native
Australian grasslands, open woodlands, river banks and flood plains.
[64],[65] Similar invasions of national wild life parks have been
observed recently in Southern India. [6]


Investigations in Parthenium Dermatitis Top


The confirmation of the diagnosis of parthenium dermatitis requires a
few investigations :

1. Patch tests: It is always important to carry out tests with the
plant material "as is."
2. Prick tests: Performed with the parthenium antigen included in
the Indian Standard Series (ISS) and with leaf "as is." Plant
materials can be crushed and diluted with saline (for example, 1:9
parts) in order to obtain a solution that can be easily pricked. Both
the immediate reaction at 15min and the late phase reaction (LPR) at
24-48 h should be recorded. [62]
3. RAST for parthenium specific antibodies but RAST is less
sensitive than prick testing. [76],[77]
4. A detailed history of atopy and Serum Ig E estimation. [57]
5. Clinical severity scoring (CSS) is as described by Verma et al [78]



Plant extracts

Plant allergens are low molecular weight secondary plant metabolites
and are usually soluble in acetone, ethanol or ether. A filtered
acetone or ethanol extract of dried plant material or a short ether
extract of fresh material produces a solution suitable for patch
testing. Aqueous extracts degrade rapidly and lose their sensitizing
power within a month. [79] Acetone extracts of P. hysterophorus are
reported to be more sensitive than water extracts, with good
sensitivity to 1% acetone extract. [80] Although extracts in organic
solvents are more stable, with time, evaporation of the solvent may
increase the concentration and the sensitizing effect of the
allergen(s). [81] Incorporating an evaporated extract into petrolatum
represents a standard means of retaining material for patch testing.


Treatment of Parthenium Dermatitis Top


Oral hyposensitization has been successfully attempted in several
small studies; patch test reactions decreased or became negative and
the patients clinically improved. [12],[52] This result is acceptable
on the basis of the fact that while chrysanthemum allergy is the
commonest Compositae allergy in Europe, it is extremely rare in Japan
where chrysanthemum leaves and flowers are eaten with sushi, salad and
soups. [12]

The results of oral hyposensitization with parthenium leaf are not
consistent and continued therapy appears to be necessary. [82],[83] It
is thought to cause the depletion of memory T-cells. [83] As with
Toxicodendron, the hyposensitization side effects include pruritus
ani, a widespread urticarial or eczematous eruption, and dyspepsia.
[83] The risk of the toxic side effects should also be considered. [84]

Acute dermatitis has to be treated immediately. Once daily application
of potent topical steroids is as effective as twice daily. [85] Potent
topical steroids and oral prednisone are relatively ineffective unless
employed early and if the further exposure to SQLs is prevented.
[12],[48],[86] Antihistamines suppress only the immediate reaction of
type I hypersensitivity; the LPR remains unaffected. [87] Systemic
corticosteroids have been the mainstay of treatment in the acute
phase. Long-term use may lead to adrenocortical axis suppression with
attendant complications. [88] A trial with
dexamethasone-cyclophosphamide pulse (DCP) therapy was unsuccessful. [89]

The combined type IV and type I hypersensitivity has been recently
postulated in parthenium dermatitis. [62] Corticosteroids are not
usually thought of being capable of protecting against immediate
allergic reactions. [89] Corticosteroids have both immunosuppressive
and anti-inflammatory actions. They suppress delayed hypersensitivity
and also the LPR of the type I hypersensitivity reaction. [26]
However, it has been observed that even the brief application of a
corticosteroid could diminish the immediate reaction. [91]

Similarly, the preventive application of corticosteroid to the nasal
mucosa of an allergic patient is capable of diminishing the symptoms
produced by an antigen challenge. [92] The protective effect of
corticosteroids extends to the immediate reaction when continuously
administered. [93] The application of corticosteroid topically for
several days depletes the mast cells in the skin and thus reduces the
response to histamine-releasing agents. [94]

Azathioprine has immunosuppressive, anti-inflammatory and
steroid-sparing properties and is effective in the treatment of
parthenium dermatitis at the dose of 1-2mg/kg/day.
[78],[95],[96],[97],[98],[99],[100] A weekly pulse dose of 300mg is
also reported to be effective with better compliance and reduced cost
of therapy. [78] The safety of a bolus dose has been questioned. [101]
Its limitation is the slow onset of action taking 2-3 months to
achieve a clinical effect. [26]

Cyclosporine, an immunosuppressive with potent anti-inflammatory
actions, has been reported to be effective in the acute phase of
parthenium dermatitis as a crisis intervention measure. [26] It also
overcomes the side effects of systemic corticosteroid usage. It
suppresses the delayed hypersensitivity reaction as well as the LPR.
[26] The histopathology of the LPR following prick testing with
parthenium allergen is reported to show leukocytoclastic vasculitis,
which was absent following the initiation of cyclosporine. [26]

Methotrexate has also been reported to be effective at a dose of 15
mg/week along with topical corticosteroids and sunscreens. [102]

Chloroquine 200mg TID for one week, ethinyl estradiol 0.5mg for 3
weeks have also been used; [86] however, they are not currently
advised. PUVA therapy has reportedly helped Compositae dermatitis. A
protocol developed by Storrs et al. combines PUVA with oral
prednisone. [12]


Prevention of Parthenium Dermatitis Top


The most effective treatment (if possible) is prevention by avoiding
the weed. However, the attempts at eradication of the weed have been
unsuccessful. One of us (CRS) has burned the leaf and patch tested
with the residue; however, the result was a positive patch test. Since
it has no economic value, efforts have been made to utilize parthenium
as a green leaf manure, biopesticide, compost for agricultural
purposes and additive with cattle manure in biogas production. [103]
Patch testing with the compost in a sensitive patient yielded positive
result, thereby confirming that the allergenicity is retained. [104]
"Parth" in the Sanskrit language is another name for Arjuna , an
invincible or indestructible character in the Indian epic Mahabharata.
Parthenium hysterophorus is thus inadvertently and aptly named. [104]

Measures of prevention and protection

Since P. hysterophorus is ubiquitous, a change of residence or job is
not a suitable option. This would also lead to social and economic
consequences. Hence, prevention is aimed at the reduction in the
quantity of the antigen to which the patient is exposed.

These measures include the following: [95]

1. To remove as much of the causative plant as possible from the
immediate environment of the patient.
2. To cover as much of the skin as possible by clothing
3. To wash the uncovered areas of the skin with soap and water as
frequently as possible (preferably every 2-3 h) in order to wash off
the antigen before it penetrates the skin.
4. To frequently use a barrier cream to slow down the penetration
of the antigen into the skin and to wash each time before the
reapplication of the barrier cream.
5. To avoid the exposure to sunlight; sunscreen lotions may serve
as barrier creams.
6. Drying of clothes indoors also helps in reducing the quantity of
antigen. Clothes dried outdoors gather the airborne parthenium
allergen. Pieces of cloth dried outside are reported to elicit a
positive patch test in a sensitive patient. [105]
7. Gloves may not offer protection since the sesquiterpene lactone
permeates vinyl, polyethylene and latex gloves. [106]




Control of P. Hysterophorus Top


Prevention of parthenium dermatitis can be attempted by biological or
chemical control of the weed, P. hysterophorus.

Biological control [6]

P. hysterophorus is essentially a ruderal (grows in rubbish, poor land
or waste land) plant in the New World and only occasionally achieves a
weed status in the fields or pastures. Biotic factors suppress the
plant within its native range compared to its increased fitness or
vigor in their absence, as in Australia and India, and therefore, the
biological control may offer the best long-term solution for the
management of this weed. However, there is skepticism surrounding the
introduction of exotic biocontrol agents, which include the following.

1. Arthropods

In the 1980s, after preliminary screening in Mexico and final
evaluation in quarantine in Australia, six oligophagous or monophagous
species were released in quarantine in Queensland:

1. A defoliating beetle, Zygogramma bicolorata Pallister (
Chrysomelidae),
2. A seed-feeding weevil, Smicronyx lutulentus Dietz ( Curculionidae),
3. A stem galling moth, Epiblema strenuana (Walker) ( Tortricidae),
4. A leaf mining moth Bucculatrix parthenica Bradley ( Lyonetiidae),
5. A sap-feeding planthopper , Stobaera concinna (Stal) ( Delphacidae),
6. A stem boring curculionid weevil, Listronotus setosipennis
(Hustache)



Despite the release of Z. bicolorata over 17 years ago in Australia in
the areas of massive sunflower cultivation, there have been no
reported instances of beetle attack on the crop. Beetle defoliation is
reported to cause up to 99.5% decline in weed population and
replacement by up to 40 different plant species in the fallow land.

Z. bicolorata proved to be an effective control agent in Bangalore.
Beetle attacks were reported on sunflowers from Karnataka. However
despite the widespread cultivation of sunflower as a crop in
Karnataka, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Kerala, there
have been no further reports of beetle feeding on sunflower in field
situations.

2. Pathogens

Mainly fungal and include exotic agents such as classical biocontrol
agents as well as adapted or opportunistic pathogens such as
mycoherbicides [Table - 3].

3. Antagonistic plants and bioherbicides

Cassia uniflora (Leguminosae) moved into areas that were previously
("traditionally") occupied by parthenium weed in Maharashtra, India.

Cassia sericea had the ability to smother or overgrow P. hysterophorus
in North-East India and it has also been reported that it reduces the
vigor of parthenium weeds. The wholesale propagation of C. uniflora
for biological control was aborted when it was found to be a major
host of Bemisia whiteflies and the reservoir of tomato leaf curl
virus. Marigold ( Tagetes erecta ) can outgrow P. hysterophorus in
field trials. [6]

Aqueous foliar extracts of Azadirachta indica, Aegle marmelos and
Eucalyptus tereticomis totally inhibit the seed germination of
parthenium and are cheap effective bioherbicides. [107]

Chemical control (herbicides)

Well known herbicides such paraquat, trifluralin, diphenamid,
napropamide and propachlor fail to control parthenium weed. [108]
Timing of chemical control is critical. They should be treated when
plants are small and have not produced seed and when grasses are
actively growing to recolonize the infested area (early summer). [109]
Maintaining competition is important for control of parthenium weed;
therefore, spraying with a selective herbicide that will not kill
other species is recommended.

Selective chemical herbicides include: [110]

Ametryne

Ametryne + simazine

Atrazine

Fomesafen

Metribuzin

Linuron

Prometryne

Metobromuron

2, 4-D

Oxadiazon

P. hysterophorus poses a serious health risk in Australia and India as
it invades new areas and retains the established ones. This review has
highlighted the dermatological aspects, current views on pathogenesis,
other health hazards and its impact on agricultural as well as the
natural ecosystems. Since its avoidance is not possible due to various
reasons, preventive, therapeutic and control options are presented.


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