HISTORY OF GOA by Ethel Carvalho

Ancient Names for ‘Goa’

 Goa earned many designations from the most ancient times. Originally Goa which enclosed a larger slice of Konkan, was known as Kalyan, meaning happy because, unlike some interior regions where droughts and food scarcity struck the land, it was blessed with boun­tiful rainfall. So happiness was where rain was. Hence, it got the name Kalyan. Her capital was Kalyanpuri, puri-signifying city, which still survives as Kalafura - Kalyanpura, named Santa­-Cruz by the Portuguese.

Mahabharata, the great Epic of epics, refers to Goa as Goparashtra, ‘a nation of cowherds or of nomadic tribes’. Par­shuram, the Hindu god, according to legend, flung his arrow on the coast aud made the waters recede, thus founding the Konkan. The Southern Konkan was called Govarashtra. In ancient Indian texts in Sanskrit she is also known as Gopakapuri or Gapakapattana. This only corroborates the idea that Goa was a very prosperous State, since cattle was the criterion of wealth. The name Gomant for Goa also occurs in the said Indian epic Mahabharata and in the sacred Hindu texts like Harivansa and Skanda as well. In the latter, Goa is even known as Gomanchala. They equally refer to her as Govapuri. Suta Sanhita, an Indian classic, for instance, has a revealing passage: “To the north of Gokarn is a 'kshetra' with seven 'yojanas' in circumference: therein is situated Govapuri, which destroys all sins. The sight of Govapuri destroys the sin committed in a previous existence, as at sunrise darkness disappears. Even by making up his mind to bathe once in Govapuri one attains a high place (in the next world). Certainly there is no 'kshetra' equal to Govapuri.”

The old Greek geographical name roughly corresponding to Goa was Ariake. In the 2^nd century A. D., Pliny and Ptolomy called her Nekanidon and Melinda respectively. In the map drawn by the self-same Ptolomy Kouba and Mur-uri are marked for Goa and Mormugaon, uri being ganv or village. The general toponymy of Goa makes indeed a fascinating study. Students interested in tracing the origin of names of various places will find that Goa had relations from the most ancient times with foreign countries, particularly with West Asia around the Arabian Sea. Those countries found that Goa was of strategic importance to establish their centers of trade and commerce. For example, the wealthy merchants from Palestine had a flourishing city in their homeland, called Beitim, which name they gave to their settlement in Goa today merely a village near Panjim. Saxtti, a name for Salcete district in Konkani, the regional language, means sixty. This conglomeration of 60 villages is apparently the direct influence of Chaldean civilization in which 60 was a standard measurement like 10 in the present decimal coinage.

As from the 7^th century and during most of the Middle Ages, Goa was known to the spirited Arabs and Persians as Kawa or Kawe corresponding to Gova or Gove. It is a phenomenon of linguistics to change g into k and vice-versa, e.g., Kafur into Gafur. In Gova too v is half-vowel, and as such it is almost lion-extant. Old Kannada inscriptions of this time called her Gove. During the earliest Kadamba rule, however, the ancient term was still popular and the appella­tion of Goa was Kalyana-gudi, 'abode of Happiness'. The name still survives with the village Kalangutt, the well-known sea- resort ­in Bardez district. Not a few Arab, Persian and other writers, like the celebrated Ibn Batuta in the 14^th century, are all praises for Sindabur, another name for Goa. An old Turkish book of navigation, Mohit, the translations of which have appeared in the Journal of Asiatic Society of Bengal, speaks of the "24^th voyage from Kovai Sindabur to Aden”.

During the first centuries of foreign domination some Portuguese historians tried to establish the meaning and etymology of the word 'Goa'. Diogo Couto traces it to the term Goe-moat that, according to him, signifies 'refreshing land'. Fr. Francisco Sousa avers that the word 'Goa' des­cended from the name of a local deity Goubat. Such expla­nations appear to have been based merely on hearsay and conjecture. They do not have the authorization to do so.

The present appellation 'GOA' was, in fact, already widely current some centuries before the arrival of the Portu­guese in India.

 Dawn

 On the western coast of India stretches the beautiful land of Goa. Springs, beaches, and waterfalls enhance the scenic beauty. Any dispassionate historian, who delves deep into the abundant material about Goa, is struck by the fact that Goa has always been a state full of potentialities. She has always been a foreigner’s cynosure of covetous eyes. Her commanding influence and strategic importance can by no means be exaggerated. In spite of being under various dynasties and kingdoms, Goa began to flourish into a united region right from the beginning of the Christian era.

Although the dawn of Goa’s history is lost in the hazy mist of antiquity, the earliest records available, the earliest record available goes back to three centuries before Christ. In the 3^rd century B.C. Goa became an important part of Ashoka’s vast empire, and even after Ashoka’s death in 232 B.C. she continued to be ruled by the Mauryas’ for a short time, till she fell subsequently under Satavahanas, Western Kshatraps and Abhiras in quick succession. This factual data is obtained from inscriptions from copper plates, stones or gold coins, etc., as well as from most ancient hand written texts in Sanskrit, Persian, Arabic, and Greek. Some inscriptions discovered in 1927 in Harvalem (Sanklle) testify to the rich civilization having flowered there in the first century A.D. and known as Sachipura. It was like Mohenjo-Daro in a miniature. Inscriptions mainly on stone are not wanting to prove beyond doubt that Buddhism was widely practiced in Goa in the first 2 centuries A.D. Buddhist inscriptions and rock-cut caves are still found in Harvalem, Darmala, Rivonna, Lotlle and around the present Mangueshi temple etc. a Catholic priest, Fr. H. Heras too discovered a statue of Buddha in Kolvale dated first century.

Dr. Pandurang Pissurkenkar, a well-known historian, deciphered in 1934 some copper plates from Shiroda in Brahmi script, bearing testimony to the grandeur of the Kadamba Kingdom of Dewraj in the 4^th century with its capital at Channdrapura, th modern Chandor in Xaxtti district. The learned historian also provided detailed history as construed from the inscriptions of ancient plaques in Sanskrit unearthed at Bandora in Ponda and at Chandranath in Kepem, which indicate the flourishing prosperity of the Bhoja dynasty in the 6^th century.

 But for this break and the rule of Shilaharas under Rastrakutas in the 8^th century, the kingdom of Kadambas from Mysore ruled Goa the longest, for over 9 centuries, from the 4^th to the 13^th century. The Kadambas found in Goa a propitious ground to boost further their prosperity. Goa was a confederacy of village republics based on the system known at this time in Konkani as ‘ganvkari’. Each village was an administrative unit by itself. The villagers lived like brothers, worshipping the same deity, and even administering their own justice and other affairs. The system of ‘ganvkari’, though considerably changed later on with the advent of the Portuguese, came to be known as ‘comunidades’ (communes). With the passage of centuries the Kadamba prince Jayakeshi I turned Goa into capital of his empire, which extended down south, including the island of Ceylon.

It is at this stage that Goa was raised on a pedestal of fame. It became an international entrepot of wealthy traders – Indians, Arabs, Persians, Greeks, and Chinese vying with one another for a place in the sun. Commerce was carried on particularly of precious stones and horses. While the ascetic sages, ‘rishis’ meditated in the interior, the pundits moved about in glittering palanquins, chiefly in the new capital ‘Govapuri’ now Goa- Velha, known down the centuries till today as ‘Vohodlem Goem’ which in konkani means Great Goa. Inscriptions dated this time compare Goa with the paradise of Indra. Jayakeshi II did not have any scruples to organize an armed revolt against his own father-in-law Emperor Vikramaditya II of the Chalukya dynasty. This ungrateful step infuriated the monarch. As a result he overran Goa, reducing her to shambles. Within a few years, however, Goa resurrected phoenix-like into her pristine greatness under the aegis of Jayakeshi II’s sons. Th Kadamba dynasty held a sway over Goa till the middle of the 13^th century when a new power dawned on the political horizon with the rise of Yadavas from Devagiri, today Daulatabad, who captured all the possessions of the Chalukyas and of their feudatories, including the Kadambas of Goa.

In 1294 Ala-ud-din Khilji, the muslim viceroy of Bengal, crossed to Decca overpowering the Yadavas and returned to Delhi where his uncle Jallaudin held the scepter. Before long he once again held another expedition to Devagiri and placed his doughty general Malik – Kafur in charge of the conquest of southern and western India. Subsequently, the Goans tried to resist by every means this Mohamedan reign, which tempered with their age-old village republics; yet soon Goa became a parcel of the domain of another Muslim ruler, Jamal-ud-din of Honore.

The Muslim Rule came to an end when Goa was taken over by General Madhav, a minister of king Harihara of Vijaynagar kingdom of Mysore. The spirit of freedom chafed under outside forces, asserted itself, however, in 1440, the people of Goa drove away the Vijayanagar satraps and, and declaring the independence of the state of Goa, safeguarded it for 25 years only. The Deccan Muslims continued to cast their covetous eyes on Goa and other parts of Konkan. In 1469 the Bahmani king, Mohammed Shah III, ordered his general Khawaja Gawan to besiege Goa. Surro­unded on land and sea, Goa could not hold out for long. She had soon to capitulate to the invading forces. This over­whelming victory was celebrated with great jubilation by the Bahmani court of Bedar, In 1472 the king of Belgaum, Vikrama, actuated by the ruler of Vijayanagar, made a desperate bid to recover the territory from the Mohammedans, but had to sue for peace. The ruler of Vijayanagar himself, but all in also made a similar attempt vain. After the passing away of Mohammed Shah IlI, the vast Bahmani Empire began to crumble. It was dismembered into five distinct principalities, the most powerful being that of Bijapur, founded by Yusuf Adil Shah who assumed the title of Khan. The latter was so charmed by not only by the ever-flowing opulen­ce of Goa, but also her scenic beauty that he eagerly changed his seat of government to Goa. The present secretariat in Panjim is known till date as the palace of Adil-Khan.

Much before the dawn of foreign dominance in India, the East had already shaken hands with the West in Goa. She now became the international center of treasures for Mecca, Aden, Orrnuz, Cambay, Malabar and hinterland kingdoms, and, in fine, from China to Genoa and Venice. It is again from Goa that Muslim pilgrims not only from India but from the East took off for the holy city of Mecca. In these palm days there were not only magnificent palaces, but also mosques and temples with glorious architectural designs. The richest mosque of the East was located in Goa. Adil Khan had an imposing palace in Old Goa, not very far from the present convents. Artistically built marble tanks for the recreation of the Bijapur princes raised the green-eyed mons­ter of many an eastern potentate. Side by side there also rose, in all their structural strength bulwarks of protection­-ramparts, towers, forts and fortresses. Goa's strategically importance imposed upon the various kingdoms the need of seeking alliance with her rulers. Whoever held Goa, held the reigns of the maritime power. Today in most places only stones dressed lichen and moss, can tell us the story of this distant past.

Golden Goa

At the turn of the 15^th century begins the story of foreign domination in India. When Vasco da Gama landed in Calicut on that historic date, 27^th May 1498, the sove­reign of this city-Samudri-Raja (King of the seas) was the ruler of a kingdom that was commercial rather than political in nature. Incidentally, as per historical evidence available from authorities, like Joao de Barros, Costa Brochado and Sardar Panikkar, Vasco da Gama was shown the way from Milindi to Calicut by a Muslim from Gujarat, Malem Khan. Besides, Greeks and Romans were already trading with India across West Asia. The Portuguese success was the result of adventure that was the spirit of the age. Vasco da Gama's was only a new route via the Cape of Good Hope. The remarkable affluence of the Samudri domain was due to the Muslims whose business acumen and trading spirit were unmatched. Vasco da Gama never dreamt of an empire in the East. All he and the other pioneers wanted was a trade monopoly primarily to enrich the coffers of the king. The Portuguese came with the sword in one hand and the merchant's scale in the other. Though the Samudri received them with great cordiality, the Muslim magnates not to allow the foreigners to open a business centre prevailed him upon. Once Vasco da Gama went back to Portugal and painted the glory of the East to the king and nobles, king D. Manuel began to dispatch fleets with soldiers and missionaries with a view to establish trade outposts and Christian nuclei in the East. To the surprise of the Portuguese missionaries, however, they found that there were already Christians in Konkan and Malabar who were converted by two of Christ's own apostles, St. Thomas and St. Bartholomew. Subsequently the Portuguese missionaries did convert many, but at the same time they reconverted the already converted, and. foisted Portuguese names on those baptized with motives, which were obviously political. The process of Goa's denationalization had started.

 Some trading outposts known as factories, and forts were soon built on the Malabar Coast, but in the process the Por­tuguese adventurers had to fight with undaunted courage against Indian native rulers, particularly king Samudri. In order to co-ordinate the Portuguese activities in the East, D. Francisco Almeida was appointed their first viceroy in India with his headquarters in Cochin. He waited to consolidate his forces to win the promised land of the East-Goa. But ere long, after a few feats of bravery on the coast right down to Ceylon, he had to cede his reigns of office to the great states­man, Afonso de Albuquerque.

With foresight and wisdom, Albuquerque conceived a grandiose plan of conquering the important ports in the East so as to maintain the supremacy over the seas and neighboring kingdoms as well. When Albuquerque gathered the forces to overcome Ormuz, Timoja, a Hindu sovereign of Honore, who explained to him how it would bem08t opportune to launch an attack on Goa in view of the prevail­ing discords between its Muslim ruler and the neighboring kingdoms, visited him. Thus the Portuguese soldiers attacked and captured Goa. Their task was made easier by the Cassandra-like pro­phecy of a yogi that Goa would fall into the hands of an invader from a distant land. Superstitious as they were, the belief in this prophecy demoralized the people of Goa when they were confronted with the enemy at the gates, and sur­rendered easily. On 17^th February 1510, Albuquerque entered Goa triumphantly amid a fanfare of drums and resound­ing trumpets. Adil Khan, the ruling prince of Goa who was away, lost no time to muster his forces. Shortly, on 23^rd May, with an army of 60,000 strong, he attacked the Portuguese forces in a most vigorous onslaught. Albuquerque and his followers were forced to flee to their fleet, which had laid anchor off Panjim owing to rainy season. Here they suffered untold misery for want of provisions, being compelled to live on rats, leather and other loathsome material. In August, how­ever, with slackening of rains they had to drag on to Ange­div Island, south of Goa, from where they sighted four and later on six other ships coming from Portugal. Meanwhile the same Timoja egged him on to prepare for another attack since the Muslim ruler was again away from Goa. At last on 25^thNovember, 1510, Albuquerque's troops scaled the ram­parts of the city of Goa, but faced a fierce opposition from the Muslims. In the bloody battle that ensued, deeds of he­roism and valor were witnessed on both sides. The Portuguese took the palm of victory. But it was stained with the unimaginable cruelty of Albuquerque and his compatriots who put to sword mercilessly six thousands of vanquished Muslim men, women and children. For three day Goa was bathed in blood. The Portuguese rule had begun.

Despite his initial and unexpected cruelty, Albuquerque excelled in the art of administration. He accepted most of the native customs, but banned the obnoxious sati. Finally he laid the firm roots of a Portuguese empire in the East. Little by little the Portuguese began to annex new enclaves on the coast. Within a few years, after acts of bravery and heroism, their factories extended all round the Arabian Sea from Mombasa and Persian Gulf to the Malabar Coast and Bengal in India, Ceylon and even to Sumatra. Later on they were to take possession by conquest of Macao and Timor in the Far East. The important strongholds of Portuguese empire were Bahrein, Chaul, Ormuz, Goa. Calicut, G)Iombo, Pacem (Su­matra) and Malara. Goa, however, was the headquarters of the Portuguese viceroy wh03e jurisdiction extended over all these territories in Asia and Africa. Goa of those days comprised Belgaum and even Sawantvadi. In order to consolidate these factories and forts, Portugal had to send large reinforcements.

The trade and commerce in the Portuguese held territo­ries at the time also registered a marked increase, which in turn brought great prosperity to those areas and enriched the Portuguese exchequer. In the face of stiff native opposition on all sides, Portugal went on expanding her empire. After a previous abortive attempt to conquer Diu, it was ceded by Bahadur Shah along with Bassein, islands of Salcette, Bom­bay, Karanja, Elephanta, Trombay around 1535, when he was persecuted by the Moghuls. The Bahadur later on still endeavored to regain Diu, but in a bitter encounter with the Por­tuguese had to pay the price of his life. But despite Portugal's superiority in arms, they were harried not only by the native population but also by the neighborly princes in almost all the areas held by them. In Goa for instance, namely in Cun­colim, Assolna, Margaon and Rachol, they were attacked by the forces of Assad Khan who was a high dignitary of the Bijapur court. Not much later they had to stave off the onslaughts of Khoja-Safar in Diu in 1538 and 1546, and of Ibraim Adil-Khan in Ponda and Cuncolim in 1547.

It was during these early years of Portuguese domination that Camoes, who later on became one of the world epic writers, was conscripted to the army and sent to Goa where he wrote his early poems; also at this time had arrived in Goa St. Francis Xavier who earned many conversions, and proceeded to the Far East where he died in Malaca in 1552. He had also in his letters expressed the desire that wherever he died his body should be taken and buried in Goa.

Portugal, in order to meet the expenses of the vast soldiery establishments, began to tax the people resulting in great discontent among them. As a protest against this impo­sition which was a crushing burden, the people spontaneously revolted by refusing to pay these enhanced taxes. This is the first recorded public reaction to the Portuguese rule.

In the year 1559 Daman became part of the Goa state. Yet the local population and the native princes around Portuguese establishments continued to resist their governance, but to no avail. In 1570 the foreigner defeated the combined, multi-pronged attack of three rulers, Ali Adil Khan of Deccan, Nizam Shah of Ahmednagar and Zamorim of

Calicut.

It is at this time that Goa was, on the pinnacle of fame. Circumstances on international plane conspired to lift her up into the highest sphere of glory. Goa was colorful motley of peoples of all nationalities and religions jostling, from Ve­netians, Germans, British, and Javanese etc. to Muslims with their mosques and Jews with their synagogues, apart from temples and cathedrals. Arabs, Chinese and Indians vied with one another to carryon international trade in muslin, brocade, gold, pearls, corals, diamonds, China porcelain and what not. Casinos and magnificent salons abounded. The latest fashions at once found their way in Goa where the nobles and princes of different countries paraded in their palanquins or rode on their horses. It was at this time that windows began to be fitted with oyster shells and fish scales, a feature that has been handed down from generation to generation so much so that even in the year of grace 1964 we find windows in Goan houses still sporting these maritime devices. It is the Goa of this era, with its dazzling affluence and expansive trade and great zest for living when Portuguese ‘fidalgos’ brushed shoul­ders with Indian nobles and wealthy Arab merchants, that came to be known as GOLDEN GOA.

 Decadence

Christianity was on its onward march, especially in Saxtti district until 1583 when the people of Cuncolim, Assolna, Velim and Ambelim offered bitter resistance in the defense of their idols and temples. A few months later on 15^th July of the same year Fr. Rodolfo Aquaviva, just returned from Akbar’s court, and other missionaries, made another attempt at conversion. But the inhabitants of the same villages fiercely set on these 50 priests and soldiers, most of who were done to death. Some of these missionaries were later in 1893 beatified by the Catholic Church as Martyrs of Cuncolim.

This Cuncolim Revolt was the forerunner of a series, of other uprisings numbering over 40, which punctuated the long foreign domination in Goa. Although Goa remained like Prometheus Unbound, her people's deep-rooted spirit of patriotism was undimmed. Off and on the spirit manifested but owing to heavy odds, could not find fulfillment.

 In the last quarter of the 16^th century all round Deca­dence set in. Various factors account for this general decline. By and by luxury and ostentation brought about profligacy and depravity of morals. Corruption and venality were the order of the day. Portugal herself was groaning under the Spanish domination since 1580. All this gave rise to lassitude and a spirit of decay, which was responsible for the loss of Portuguese monopoly in trade and commerce. Many Portuguese fortresses and factories around the Arabian Sea, such as Molucas, Ormuz, Pegu (Indo-China), Malaca and few others slipped from their hands in the first half of the 17^th century.

The British and the Dutch too began to vie with the Portuguese for the supremacy in the Indian seas. The British fleet attacked the Portuguese off Surat, but without any gains. The Dutch fleets blockaded and assailed Goa twice in 1603 and 1640, but had to recede before a fierce resistance. It is at this time that the Inquisition caused holy terror in Goa and about which Delon, the French missionary who was in Goa at the time, wrote vividly his Memoirs. Even in Ceylon the Portuguese had to battle with the Dutch to defend their possession. The conquest and rule of Portugal herself by Spain for 60 years ending in 1640 was another factor to cause indiscipline in the military ranks. Some minor mutinies gave rise to unrest in Goa. As more and more Portuguese possessi­ons fell to the Dutch, the empire of the latter began to expand: Ceylon in 1656 followed by Quilon, Cranganore, Cochin, Cananore and other important centers of trade, like Barcelor, Mangalore, Honore, Negapatnam and Meliapur, were occupied by the Dutch. In Africa Mombasa was recovered by the Arabs in 1699. The Portuguese empire further denuded itself of Tangiers and Bombay in 1665, by ceding them as dowries to their Princess Catherine who was given in marriage to King Charles II of England.

In 1668 the indomitable Shivaji also tried to invest Goa with a view to expanding his empire, but returned without success. In 1683, however, his son Sambhaji launched an onslaught with renewed vigor, by surrounding Chapora, Tivim and Rachol, and by attacking the island of St. Estevam and Margaon. The decadent Portuguese power could only rely on Providence. In front of the gigantic forces of the Marathas, the Portuguese viceroy, by kneeling down before the tomb of St. Francis Xavier, fervently prayed for his inter­cession. Providentially the Moghul army of a sudden advanced on the Marathas, and Sambhaji, who had almost a victory over the Portuguese, had to withdraw from Goa to meet the advancing Moghuls. It was like Attila stopping at the gates of Rome. The local people to the powers of St. Francis ascribed this miraculous event. Subsequently in order to ward off future attacks of the Marathas, the Portuguese erected, more forts at Angediv, Rachol, Colvale, and Tivim, and decided to transfer their capital to Marmagoa for safety, which transfer could not be effected due to some reason or other.

In the first quarter of the 18^th century the masters of Goa had to reckon with a new force on the chess-board of politics-Savant Bhonsle, a small ruler of Sawantvadi to the north of Goa. He started off sporadic incursions into Goa, first independently, then banking on the rising power of the Marathas with whom he had struck protective alliance in 1658. On the other side, the Portuguese had at the same time to stave off the attack of other chieftains like the erratic Kanoji Angria who had already under his sway some parts of Konkan.

This was the stage of the history of India, when the Maratha empire had already expanded under the wisdom of the Peshawas, the uncrowned kings of Mabarashtra, coupled with the martial valor of their people. As in the past, Goa continued to excite the cupidity of the neighbors. When in 1739 the brave Marathas conquered Bassein and other northern Portuguese enclave, except Daman and Diu, emboldened by this success, a skilled Maratha general Venkat Rau invaded some parts of Salcete, namely Margaon, Cuncolim and Rachol, but without any durable success. At this time the Portuguese government had to face a stiff challenge from the Bhonsles as well. When Goa was thus being subjected to constant attacks on all sides, the new Portuguese viceroy arrived with more reinforcements. The following years were marked by occasional incursions on Goa by the Marathas, till 1759 when a peace treaty was signed between them and the Portuguese. In the province of religion the situation had reversed. Unlike the olden days, the Sword began to persecute the Cross. The new Portuguese Prime Minister, Pombal banned the Christian religious orders in 1758.

In its downward trend Goa skidded off. Celebrated writers and travelers like Hamilton, Dellon, Careri... and Portuguese writers themselves testify to Goa's ruinous state. A Portuguese poet, Bocage who came to Goa, could not help, writing the poem “Por terra jaz o emporio do Oriente” (On the ground lies the emporium of the East). Major Drury bemoaned it later on in a poem:

                            All, all that once was glad and bright,

                           Reposing there in ceaseless night.

Within a few decades the once glorious City of Goa, at one time the international trading center, wail now humbled to dust.

Resurgence

 As the Portuguese were still engaged in hostilities with the king of Sonda and the Desais of Satari with a view to annexing more districts in the interior, they had to face va­rious concerted acts to dislodge the foreign rule in the alrea­dy consolidated districts known as Old Conquests.

In 1787, two years before the glorious French Revolution, some 17 priests and 20 others plotted a revolution against the Portuguese. This is known as Pinto's Revolt, because the Pinto family of Candolim largely financed it. Led by Fr. C. F. Couto and

 Fr. J. A. Gonsalves, they eagerly wanted to found a republic of Goa to be governed by a House of the People. As this plot was discovered as it was about to materialize, the Portuguese satraps tortured these native priests, by dragging their maimed bodies by the horses' tails; they decapitated some of them, and by sticking their heads on the spikes, they exhibited them to the public. This filled the population with terror. The rebel leader had links even in Portugal, particularly with the celebrated Goan Abbe Faria who then escaped to France, and also with Tippu Sultan of Myso­re. The tribunal of Portuguese justice condemned them. But the Recorder of bravery projected them on pages of history.

The Portuguese enforced in Goa their right with might. Yet the patriotic ferment in Goans never remained dormant. It either erupted in rebellions, which were smothered by the oppressive Portuguese measures, or manifested it in press­ing for claims within the constitution. The first half of the 19^th century was punctuated with revolts. The British too, under some pretext or other, began to defy the Portuguese authorities with a view to annex Goa, but to no avail. Inside Goa the rulers themselves met with checkered resistance from the Desais and Ranes, mainly of Satari district. The first re­volt was provoked by Hari Apa Ganvso from Uspa in 1811, followed immediately by the Ranes who attacked the villages of Nadora, Revora, and Pima, all in Bardez district.

In view of the wind blowing from America, France and other liberal states, Portuguese rigidity of supreme control of the colonies, was undergoing certain changes. These changes had created a healthier climate for the peoples of the colony to demand a fuller measure of autonomy. In September 1821 some of the officials and distinguished Goans conspired and deposed the Portuguese viceroy in order to install a provisio­nal board to rule Goa. The Goan acknowledged leader, Ber­nardo Peres da Silva took active part in this move. Soon after the new "Carta Orgânica" granting more constitutional powers to colonies was promulgated in Portugal. In 1822 the first three deputies, including Bernardo Peres da Silva, were elected to the Portuguese parliament. In the same year a band of insurrectionists captained by Fr. Pedro Ribeiro marched on the fort of Colvale. In 1835 the same Bernardo Peres da Silva was appointed Governor-General of Goa, taking as his Chief Secretary another eminent Goan Constancio Roque da Costa. On his arrival from Portugal he took charge but his rule was short-lived. Afterwards, the sweeping reform he had begun excited the jealousy and ire of the Portuguese offi­cials, which led them to rise against him and depose him. He had to make good his escape to Bombay. In spite of his absence, his followers demanded his reinstatement. A bloody _ncounter ensued at Gaspar Dias between the two factions, most of his followers having been massacred. The state troops went a step further. They marched to Terekhol and Gululem (Satari) and committed the worst atrocities on the popular forces. Not disposed to return to Goa, Bernardo Peres da Silva and Constancio Roque da Costa proceeded to Bombay, and Goans acclaimed them as the undisputed rulers of Da­man and Diu. There functioned for a few months’ parallel governments, one Portuguese inside Goa, and one Goan Go­vernment at the helm of Daman and Diu.

These dramatic incidents were followed by other momentous events. On the Goan front, the government had to put down some military rebellions, although of little political consequence. The British too redoubled their pressure around Goa, as they felt the entire west coast in their possession would provide them with better advantages.

By this time the Portuguese were truly being harassed internally and externally. The martial people of Satari, Ranes began harrying the Portuguese with redoubled vigor with no less then 21 risings in a short span of 50 years or so. They adopted the means of guerilla warfare, such as attacking and kidnapping officials and their children. If in the district of Bardez, Saxtti etc. the rulers comparatively overpowered the local people these last two centuries; it was the Ranes who offered them continual resistance in the New Conquests, which were annexed by the Portuguese only in these three centuries. In all these insurrections the Ranes brought to bear upon their martial prowess. The Portuguese tried to humor them with tempting promises, but all in vein. On 26^th January 1852 Dipaji Rano captained the uprising against them by directing his operations from the fort of Nanuz in Satari.

Later when the Portuguese wished to gerrymander and wriggle the elections in Divar village in 1854, by sending there captain Garcez, he was done to death by popular forces. This incident is vividly recounted in a popular mando “Luizinha”. The military detachments in Mapusa and Ponda without orders surrounded the island of Divar where they took revenge by slaying some of the popular leaders. Such was the indiscipline and chaos that four military contingent from Margaon, Ponda, Bicholim and Mapusa joined hands to stage an insurrection known as Volvoi Revolt. This was in 1870. Another mutiny took place the next year at Marcela in Ponda district. The spirit of revolt was kept simmering. Discontent deepened. In 1895 when the metropolitan govern­ment ordered the transfer of Goans in the army from Goa to Mozambique, these troops refused to be transferred from their homeland. All of them marched off up to the fort of Nanuz. There their ranks were swelled with Ranes and villagers. This is what is known as the Sepoy Mutiny. A priest Fr. F. X. Alvares, editor of Brado Indiano (Indian Call) took up their cause, but had to suffer imprisonment. The Portuguese autho­rities quickly withdrew whatever civil rights and guarantees enjoyed under the new Portuguese constitution. In October-November the same year these forces led by Dada Rano launched a vigorous attack on Bardez and other places, but the Portuguese with their armed might succeeded once again to quell the revolt. When the following year Ravji Rano, a close relative of Dada was killed by the Portuguese police, the Ranes, like wounded tigers, set furiously upon them. Around these years another powerful local leader organized constant skirmishes against the rulers-Kustoba Rano, whose romantic deeds are sung in Konkani operettas and mandos. He was treacherously slain in 1871, betrayed by his followers. In the chain of Ranes risings, after the turn of the century, a valiant Portuguese commander met with the same gruesome fate at the, hands of Ranes. Thereupon Dada Rano and few of his colleagues were deported to Timor. This was in 1901. Later on in 1912 the Ranes organized the last rising against the foreign ruler. As most of the Portuguese did not trust Goans in the army, they had to summon African troops to suppress their movement.

If the people of Goa, by and large, did not participate in these armed revolts of Ranes, their leaders in Goa and Portugal were insistent on the demands for their rights within the constitution. After Portugal was compelled to grant inde­pendence to Brazil,

Fr. Jeremias Mascarenhas made a stirring call in 1852 in the Portuguese parliament to grant similar honor to Goa. But more thundering demand for "Liberty and Light” erupted in 1862 in Francisco Luis Gomes, a statesman, economist, scientist, litterateur who believed that Goa was, part and parcel of the great subcontinent of India, and Goan people, flesh of the same flesh, and blood of the same blood as that of the, Indian people.

The Portuguese constitutional charter, though very late, had set in a fresh wind of liberalism in Goa. By 1890 the first Goan Political parties had come into their own: the ‘Partido lndiano’ representing the popular forces and the pro-governmental ‘Partido Ultramarino’. On the crest of excitement and fervor of elections for Goan Municipalities, the official hounds wanted to seal the ballot boxes and declare elected the governmental candidates. The great stalwarts Jose Inacio de Loyola and Roque Correia Afonso created-an upsurge of a movement. On the grounds of Margaon church they led a mass of Goans to launch a protest denouncing such an outrage. Portuguese troops arrived and shot down 23 prominent Goans. It was a baptism of fire in the exercise of Goans' civic rights and liberties. This is the Goan Jalian­walla Bagh. In commemoration of this historic date the event came to be fixed as 21^st September Movement.

In 1910 Portugal became a Republic. Goans were affor­ded some measure of autonomy till 1917 when a Dictatorship was clamped down on Portugal for a very short time. The new ‘Carta Orgânica’ curtailed all civic rights. . In 1918 an all-Goa mass rally was held in Margaon where Menezes Braganza boldly denounced Portugal's new abhorrent legislation. Again Goans were allowed to breathe a republican spirit only to be smothered once again by Salazar's Dictatorship in 1926. The Colonial Act of 1930 completely reduced the people of the colonies to a state of subservience. Meanwhile Goans established an Indian Institute in 1926 at Coimbra (Portugal) to propagate Indian culture. The following year Tristao Braganza Cunha, the father of Goan nationalism, affiliate the Goan Congress party which worked underground espous­ing the cause of freedom, to the All India Congress Committee.

The Goans were much influenced by Gandhiji's liberation movement in India. After a few years of consistent efforts, on 18^th June, 1946 Dr. R. M. Lohia, an Indian leader, appeared on the scene, and wrote the first lines of the last chapter of Goa's struggle. The movement for civil liberties was propelled. The Portuguese police unleashed a reign of terror. The Goan leaders Braganza Cunha, Kakodkar, Hegde, Bhembre, and Loyola were deported to far-off Portuguese prisons.

After India attained her independence in 1947, the Nehru government tried by all possible means to convince Portugal to withdraw peacefully. But the Portuguese government did not agree to such a proposal. Instead they went on tightening their grip. Yet the flame could not be put off. The movement decided on action. So in 1954 batches of peaceful volunteers, Satyagrahis were sent to Goa to defy the Portuguese authorities. They were arrested. In the following year many young people from different parts of India offered themselves as Satyagrahis to enter Goa. The government of India, however, did not countenance such a move, and in fact tried to obstruct them from    leaving the Indian Union territories. But the Satyagrahis who were made of sterner stuff defied the

 Indian Government ban and entered Goa on 15^th August in five batches through different points. But the Portuguese army opened fire and killed some of them. The rest were arrested and flung into the Portuguese jails. This massacre caused a chain-reaction inside Goa and a number of young men courted imprisonment. The whole world was shocked at the news of this slaughter, especially Portugal's allies, America and England who were all this time trying to mediate between India and Portugal. At this outrage the ire of the people of India reached its apex. They demanded of the Government of India retaliatory action. But the Nehru Government tried to pacify the people and resort to diplomatic overtures to persuade Portugal to withdraw peacefully. But Government of India's pacifism was misunderstood by Portugal as weakness. The U. S. A., England and other countries also endeavored to bear upon Portugal the futility of her attitude. But this had little effect on Salazar's government. The Government of India decided to send their army to liberate Goa. The historic event, which also marked the end of Portugal's rule of 450 years, took place on 19^th December 1961. Goa became one with India. The first six months she was under the military rule headed by General K. P. Candeth and

 G. K. Hundoo. Soon it was replaced by civil administration with T. Siva­sankar as

Lt. Governor. Democratic way of life followed. In October 1962 village ‘panchayat’ elections were held, and a year after during the tenure of office by the present Lt. Governor M. R. Sachdev, elections to Goa's Legislative Assembly took place giving Goa a Council of Ministers.

 Ethel Carvalho