Dear friends of Archaeology, Science and History,

Sub: Ancient materials science and Metal casting process of ancient India.

Recently we visited foot hills of 'KALO DUNGAR KUTCH JO' (Black Hills of KUTCH).
and its Ancient civilisation of KOTI KURAN. we have few but spurring findings
leading to the most Ancient Human Evolution and habitations back to the FLINT
STONE age. and also ancient materials science in the time of Iron Age.
The specimen of FLINT STONE age Flint is being Studied, Scanned for its
diagrammatic structure is prepared. So soon will be in pipeline for next
article. But the Specimen of direct proof of the Iron Age materials science and
direct proof of Metal casting 'IRON SMELTING FROTH' specimen.
During our geo-Archaeological expedition in the foot hills of the 'KALO DUNGAR
KUTCH JO' (Black Hills of KUTCH) we also visited the ancient human habitation
sites surrounding the Black hills.

We found the specimens of geological importance like fossils of Wood as well as
fossil of Marine life fish, bivalves, and also vegetative fossils. Whole of The
BLACK HILL range is full of such fossils.

Also we discovered specimens of Archaeological Importance and Human evolution
and Habitations in the Area in the ANCIENT times going back to 150 000 years
FLINT STONE age.

While collecting information and Data we continued to filming and Photographing
so we do not miss any parts un-noticed. all of sudden we noticed a Dark Black
UNUSAL LOOKING stone.

Out first assumption was that may be a meteor specimen as the area is one of the
prime locations for such specimens. We rushed to the place to collect the
specimen but surprised to get the specimen.
We expected the specimen to be high density material but that was too light with
specific gravity even less than 1 that’s lighter than the water. So we washed
the specimen and removed the dirt.
And cleaned the specimen for study. As we put the specimen in the water if float
in the water so we actually found the floating stone. But What that may be in
this place?
We tried to crack the specimen to see its consistency! But we could not crack
the specimen . so we decided to take it at a safe place and do its consistency
test at a safer place.
Later we could crack the specimen only with a metal hammer but that was to
strong to crack it like a Concrete material.

We consulted geologist as well as expert of chemistry, Physics and persons from
archaeological expertise.
With their experts opinions we reached to the conclusion that, That Dark Black
UNUSAL LOOKING stone may be in fact the IRON SMELTING FROTH,
so as we though it was so hard consistency, and it was floating in the water.



Above IRON SMELTING FROTH.JPG and Floating Iron Smeltin froth.JPG timed
8:57 28.8.2007 IF not seen here both Files are attache to the email

With all expertise opinions we reached to the conclusion that during and ancient
time of Iron age, our ancestors used to make Iron tools.
But generally the specimens we get for such iron age tools are mostly
contaminated by other Carbon during the oxidation process during the passed
time.
But The IRON SMELTING froth is quite big with thousands of air bubble in side,
which has trapped in the ait of that time gives direct and conclusive evidence
of the time interval passed ,
environmental proofs of the air specimen in the air bubble of that time, C14 -
un–contaminated Carbon dating proofs from the centre mass of the specimen.
And why the specimen remained un rusted for so long period a mystery of ancient
metal casting materials science.

Smelting basics
The 7 metals that were known in ancient times (mercury, tin, lead, copper,
silver, gold, and iron) can in principle be smelted through similar chemical
reactions from their ores:
Mercury Oxide, Cassiterite, Minium, Silver oxide, Cuprite and Hematite
Different ores require different reactions at different temperatures, but almost
always the reducing agent is carbon. The list above is sorted in increasing
temperature order,
so iron is the most difficult metal to smelt from the ones in the list (that's
why historically iron smelting was the last to be discovered).
A common mistake is to think that the metal is obtained from the ore because at
high temperature the metal just melts out of the ore.
That is incorrect: if a blacksmith just heats up the ore without the proper
reducing agent (carbon), he will just obtain molten ore.
Also, one can smelt some ores at a temperature lower than the temperature
required to melt the metal. Usually, though, these reactions happen at
temperatures high enough to melt the resulting metal,
so the metal can just be cast directly out of the furnace.
The exception to the previous paragraph is that some metal oxides just decompose
at relatively low temperatures, so instead of trying to smelt mercury out of
mercury oxide,
one can just heat up mercury oxide to about 500°C, and the oxide will decompose
into mercury and oxygen; as mercury boils at 357C, this will cause the oxide to
decompose and boil out,
producing the highly toxic gaseous mercury. This is possible only for mercury
and a handful of other metal oxides; most metal oxides must be smelt with carbon
as the reducing agent.
Smelting is a chemical reaction that requires a particular ore (that sometimes
look like any other common sedimentary rock), a particular content of carbon and
a particular temperature
in order to produce the metal. Without knowledge of chemistry, it is impossible
to predict if a given rock can be smelted or not, and what it will produce.
Therefore, there is continuous debate to understand how the ancient people
learned how to smelt.
Probably the first smelting was done by accident by making a campfire on top of
tin or lead ores.
That may accidentally produce metallic tin and lead at the bottom of the
campfire, as the temperatures to smelt tin and lead are easily obtained in a
campfire.
These metals can then be molten and cast in a campfire.
The earliest cast lead beads known today were found in the site in Anatolia
(Turkey), and were dated of 6500BC.
It is unclear when the earliest cast tin artifacts were made, given that tin is
much more uncommon than lead, and earlier tin artifacts may have been reused to
make bronze.
Although lead is a relatively common metal, it is too soft to be of much
utility, so the first smelting of lead didn't have significant impact in the
ancient world.
Early iron smelting
The earliest evidence to date for the bloomery smelting of iron is found at Tell
Hammeh, Jordan, and dates to 930 CalBC (C14 dating).
However, based on the archaeological record of iron artifacts, it is clear that
intentional reduction of iron metal from terrestrial ores (in the case of Hammeh
a Haematite ore),
must have started near the end of the Late Bronze Age (ca. 1600–1150 BC). Where
and how iron smelting was discovered is widely debated, and remains uncertain
due to the significant lack of production finds.
Nevertheless, there is some consensus that iron technology originated in the
Near East, perhaps in Eastern Anatolia.
In Ancient Egypt somewhere between the Third Intermediate Period and 23rd
Dynasty (ca. 1100–750 BC) there are indications of iron working.
Significantly though, no evidence for the smelting of iron from ore has been
attested to Egypt in any period. There is a further possibilty of iron smelting
and working in West Africa by 1200 BC[1].
In addition, very early instances of carbon steel was found to be in production
around 2000 YBP in northwest Tanzania, based on complex preheating principles.
These discoveries are significant for the history of metallurgy.[2]
Most early processes in Europe and Africa involved smelting iron ore in a
bloomery, where the temperature is kept low enough so that the iron does not
melt.
This produces a spongy mass of iron called a bloom, which then has to be
consolidated with a hammer.

By Dr.BHUDIA-Science Group Of INDIA.
http://uk.groups.yahoo.com/group/venustransit_2004/
President: 'Kutch Science Foundation'.
Founder :'Kutch Amateurs Astronomers Club - Bhuj – Kutch
'.Life Member:'kutch Itihaas Parishad'.
kutchscience@..., kutchscience@...,
http://uk.geocities.com/wildlifeofkutch/http://www.geocities.com/kutchscience/
http://profiles.yahoo.com/kutchscience2000/
http://in.groups.yahoo.com/group/scienceclubofindia/
http://in.groups.yahoo.com/group/kutchscience/
http://in.groups.yahoo.com/group/kachch/
hhttp://in.groups.yahoo.com/group/bhuj/ Do visit our ABOVE Clubs/Groups of
Science club of India, Science Group of India.
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